Endometrial Cancer

Endometrial Cancer – Topic Overview

 

Is this topic for you?

This topic provides information about the initial testing, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer of the lining of the uterus, endometrial cancer. Other types of uterine cancer are more rare and are not discussed in this topic.

If you are looking for information about cancer of the cervix, see the topic Cervical Cancer.

What is endometrial cancer?

Endometrial cancer is the rapid and uncontrolled growth of cells in the endometrium, the lining of the uterus. The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman’s abdomen. Endometrial cancer usually occurs in women older than 50. Fortunately, it is highly curable if detected at an early stage when the cancer is still contained in the uterus. Most women with endometrial cancer are diagnosed in the earliest stage, and up to 93% of these women are cancer-free 5 years after treatment.¹

What causes endometrial cancer?

The cause of endometrial cancer is currently unknown. Exposure to the hormone estrogen over many years without enough of the hormone progesterone to balance it (unopposed estrogen) appears to be related to the development of endometrial cancer.²

What are the symptoms?

The most common symptom is abnormal vaginal bleeding after menopause. About 20% of women who have abnormal bleeding after menopause have endometrial cancer.³

If endometrial cancer is more advanced, additional symptoms may be present. These include difficulty urinating, a lump in the pelvic area, pain in the pelvic area, and weight loss.

What increases my risk of developing endometrial cancer?

Being exposed to estrogen for years without progesterone to balance it (unopposed estrogen) appears to be the greatest risk factor for developing endometrial cancer. Long-term exposure to unopposed estrogen may occur as a result of:

• Beginning your menstrual cycle before age 12 or starting menopause after age 55.
• Not ever being pregnant or completing a full-term pregnancy.
• Not ever breast-feeding.
• Using hormone replacement therapy without progesterone.
• Being obese. Fat cells produce estrogen. Obese women have many fat cells, which increases the rate of estrogen production.

Additional factors that increase your risk include:

• Taking tamoxifen, a breast cancer medication that acts like estrogen in the uterus.³
• Being older than 50.
• Having a history of breast, ovarian, or colon cancer.
• Having endometrial hyperplasia.
• Having a family history of endometrial cancer or hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC).

How is endometrial cancer diagnosed?

Endometrial cancer is usually diagnosed with an endometrial biopsy. A biopsy removes a small sample of the lining of the uterus for examination under a microscope.

Your doctor will determine the stage of your endometrial cancer, or how far advanced it is, by gathering information from a variety of tests, including blood tests, bone scans, and X-rays. The stage of your cancer is one of the most important factors in selecting the treatment option that is right for you.

How is it treated?

Endometrial cancer in its early stages can be cured with treatment and close follow-up. The primary treatment for endometrial cancer is surgery (hysterectomy) to remove the uterus, cervix, ovaries, and fallopian tubes. Pelvic lymph nodes may also be removed. Other treatments may be used depending on the stage of cancer and whether you are at high risk of having the cancer return. These treatments include radiation therapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy.

Thyroid cancer

Thyroid cancer: Treatment – Patient Information [NCI PDQ] – Description

 

What is thyroid cancer?

Thyroid cancer is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the tissues of the thyroid gland. The thyroid gland is at the base of the throat. It has two lobes, one on the right side and one on the left. The thyroid gland makes important hormones that help the body function normally.

Certain factors may increase the risk of developing thyroid cancer.

• Thyroid cancer occurs more often in people between the ages of 25 and 65 years.
• People who have been exposed to radiation or received radiation treatments to the head and neck during infancy or childhood have a greater chance of developing thyroid cancer. The cancer may occur as early as 5 years after exposure or may occur 20 or more years later.
• People who have had goiter (enlarged thyroid) or a family history of thyroid disease have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer.
• Thyroid cancer is more common in women than in men.
• Asian people have an increased risk of developing thyroid cancer.

A doctor should be seen if there is a lump or swelling in the front of the neck or in other parts of the neck.

If there are symptoms, a doctor will feel the patient’s thyroid and check for lumps in the neck. The doctor may order blood tests and special scans to see whether a lump in the thyroid is making too many hormones. The doctor may want to take a small amount of tissue from the thyroid. This is called a biopsy. To do this, a small needle is inserted into the thyroid at the base of the throat and some tissue is drawn out. The tissue is then looked at under a microscope to see whether it contains cancer.

There are four main types of thyroid cancer (based on how the cancer cells look under a microscope):

1. papillary
2. follicular
3. medullary
4. anaplastic

Some types of thyroid cancer grow faster than others. The chance of recovery (prognosis) depends on the type of thyroid cancer, whether it is in the thyroid only or has spread to other parts of the body (stage), and the patient’s age and overall health. The prognosis is better for patients younger than 40 years who have cancer that has not spread beyond the thyroid.

The genes in our cells carry the hereditary information from our parents. An abnormal gene has been found in patients with some forms of thyroid cancer. If medullary thyroid cancer is found, the patient may have been born with a certain abnormal gene which may have led to the cancer. Family members may have also inherited this abnormal gene. Tests have been developed to determine who has the genetic defect long before any cancer appears. It is important that the patient and his or her family members (children, grandchildren, parents, brothers, sisters, nieces and nephews) see a doctor about tests that will show if the abnormal gene is present. These tests are confidential and can help the doctor help patients. Family members, including young children, who don’t have cancer, but do have this abnormal gene, may reduce the chance of developing medullary thyroid cancer by having surgery to safely remove the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy).

Pancreatic Cancer

General Information About Pancreatic Cancer

 

Pancreatic cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the pancreas.

The pancreas is a gland about 6 inches long that is shaped like a thin pear lying on its side. The wider end of the pancreas is called the head, the middle section is called the body, and the narrow end is called the tail. The pancreas lies behind the stomach and in front of the spine.

The pancreas has two main jobs in the body:

• To produce juices that help digest (break down) food.
• To produce hormones, such as insulin and glucagon, that help control blood sugar levels. Both of these hormones help the body use and store the energy it gets from food.

The digestive juices are produced by exocrine pancreas cells and the hormones are produced by endocrine pancreas cells. About 95% of pancreatic cancers begin in exocrine cells.

This summary provides information on exocrine pancreatic cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Islet Cell Carcinoma (Endocrine Pancreas) Treatment for information on endocrine pancreatic cancer.

Smoking and health history can affect the risk of developing pancreatic cancer.

The following are possible risk factors for pancreatic cancer:

• Smoking.
• Long-standing diabetes.
• Chronic pancreatitis.
• Certain hereditary conditions, such as hereditary pancreatitis, multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 syndrome, hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer (HNPCC; Lynch syndrome), von Hippel-Lindau syndrome, ataxia-telangiectasia, and the familial atypical multiple mole melanoma syndrome (FAMMM).

Possible signs of pancreatic cancer include jaundice, pain, and weight loss.

These and other symptoms may be caused by pancreatic cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:

• Jaundice (yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes).
• Pain in the upper or middle abdomen and back.
• Unexplained weight loss.
• Loss of appetite.
• Fatigue.

Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect (find) and diagnose early.

Pancreatic cancer is difficult to detect and diagnose for the following reasons:

• There aren’t any noticeable signs or symptoms in the early stages of pancreatic cancer.
• The signs of pancreatic cancer, when present, are like the signs of many other illnesses.
• The pancreas is hidden behind other organs such as the stomach, small intestine, liver, gallbladder, spleen, and bile ducts.

Tests that examine the pancreas are used to detect (find), diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer.

Pancreatic cancer is usually diagnosed with tests and procedures that produce pictures of the pancreas and the area around it. The process used to find out if cancer cells have spread within and around the pancreas is called staging. Tests and procedures to detect, diagnose, and stage pancreatic cancer are usually done at the same time. In order to plan treatment, it is important to know the stage of the disease and whether or not the pancreatic cancer can be removed by surgery. The following tests and procedures may be used:

• Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
• Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
• CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography. A spiral or helical CT scan makes a series of very detailed pictures of areas inside the body using an x-ray machine that scans the body in a spiral path.
• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
• PET scan (positron emission tomography scan): A procedure to find malignant tumor cells in the body. A small amount of radionuclide glucose (sugar) is injected into a vein. The PET scanner rotates around the body and makes a picture of where glucose is being used in the body. Malignant tumor cells show up brighter in the picture because they are more active and take up more glucose than normal cells.
• Endoscopic ultrasound (EUS): A procedure in which an endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into the body. The endoscope is used to bounce high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram. This procedure is also called endosonography.
• Laparoscopy: A surgical procedure to look at the organs inside the abdomen to check for signs of disease. Small incisions (cuts) are made in the wall of the abdomen and a laparoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted into one of the incisions. Other instruments may be inserted through the same or other incisions to perform procedures such as removing organs or taking tissue samples for biopsy.
• Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP): A procedure used to x-ray the ducts (tubes) that carry bile from the liver to the gallbladder and from the gallbladder to the small intestine. Sometimes pancreatic cancer causes these ducts to narrow and block or slow the flow of bile, causing jaundice. An endoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is passed through the mouth, esophagus, and stomach into the first part of the small intestine. A catheter (a smaller tube) is then inserted through the endoscope into the pancreatic ducts. A dye is injected through the catheter into the ducts and an x-ray is taken. If the ducts are blocked by a tumor, a fine tube may be inserted into the duct to unblock it. This tube (or stent) may be left in place to keep the duct open. Tissue samples may also be taken.
• Percutaneous transhepatic cholangiography (PTC): A procedure used to x-ray the liver and bile ducts. A thin needle is inserted through the skin below the ribs and into the liver. Dye is injected into the liver or bile ducts and an x-ray is taken. If a blockage is found, a thin, flexible tube called a stent is sometimes left in the liver to drain bile into the small intestine or a collection bag outside the body. This test is done only if ERCP cannot be done.
• Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. There are several ways to do a biopsy for pancreatic cancer. A fine needle may be inserted into the pancreas during an x-ray or ultrasound to remove cells. Tissue may also be removed during a laparoscopy (a surgical incision made in the wall of the abdomen).

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

• Whether or not the tumor can be removed by surgery.
• The stage of the cancer (the size of the tumor and whether the cancer has spread outside the pancreas to nearby tissues or lymph nodes or to other places in the body).
• The patient’s general health.
• Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).

Pancreatic cancer can be controlled only if it is found before it has spread, when it can be removed by surgery. If the cancer has spread, palliative treatment can improve the patient’s quality of life by controlling the symptoms and complications of this disease.

Taking part in one of the clinical trials being done to improve treatment should be considered. Information about ongoing clinical trials is available from the NCI Web site.

Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma

 

What is non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma?

Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) is cancer of the cells of the lymphatic system. In non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, cells in the lymphatic system divide and grow without order or control, or old cells do not die as cells normally do. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma can start almost anywhere in the body. It may occur in a single lymph node, in a group of lymph nodes, or in an organ such as the spleen. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma can spread to almost any part of the body, including the liver, bone marrow, and spleen.

Over time, lymphoma cells replace the normal cells in the bone marrow. This causes bleeding problems and infections. As the lymphoma cells spread, the body becomes less and less able to produce blood cells that carry oxygen to other tissues or to protect itself from infection.

Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is different from Hodgkin’s lymphoma and occurs about eight times more often.

Are there different types of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma?

Over the years, experts have used a variety of terms to classify the many different types of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Most often, they are grouped by how the cancer cells look under a microscope and how quickly they are likely to grow and spread. Aggressive lymphomas, also known as intermediate- and high-grade lymphomas, tend to grow and spread quickly and cause severe symptoms. Nonaggressive lymphomas, also referred to as indolent or low-grade lymphomas, tend to grow quite slowly and cause fewer symptoms early in the disease course.

In an effort to increase the understanding of lymphoma and standardize treatment, experts in Europe and North America (Revised European-American Lymphoma [REAL] and World Health Organization [WHO]) have revised the classification of lymphoma.

What causes non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma?

The cause of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is unknown. The incidence of NHL has continued to increase over the years. It is probably a genetic disorder and may require a “trigger,” such as exposure to something in the environment, to develop. NHL is not contagious.

• NHL is more common in men than in women.
• The likelihood of getting NHL increases as you get older.
• NHL is most common among those who have an inherited immune deficiency, an autoimmune disease, or HIV; it also occurs among those who take medications that impair the immune system following an organ transplant.
• Viral infections, such as with human T-lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-1) and Epstein-Barr virus, increases the risk of developing NHL.
• Exposure to pesticides, solvents, or fertilizers increases the risk of developing NHL.

What are the symptoms?

The most common symptom of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is a painless swelling of the lymph nodes in the neck, underarm, or groin. Other symptoms may include:

• Unexplained fever.
• Night sweats.
• Extreme fatigue.
• Unexplained weight loss.
• Itchy skin.
• Reddened patches on the skin.

How is non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma diagnosed?

Once NHL is suspected, a piece of tissue (biopsy) must be obtained to confirm the diagnosis. Occasionally this can be done by inserting a needle into a lymph node, but usually the entire lymph node must be removed. The piece of tissue is then analyzed under a microscope by a pathologist to see whether NHL is present.

How is it treated?

Treatment of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma depends on the stage of the disease, the grade of the disease, and your age and general health. The four treatment options available are:

• Watchful waiting (surveillance).
• Radiation therapy.
• Chemotherapy.
• Biological therapy.

Leukemia

 

What is leukemia?

Leukemia is cancer of the blood cells. Blood cells are made by your bone marrow, which is the soft tissue in the middle of most bones. In leukemia, the bone marrow starts making too many white blood cells, and sometimes these cells don’t work right. These cells keep growing when they are supposed to stop. They also grow faster than your other cells. Over time, these abnormal cells crowd out your normal white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets.

Your white blood cells help your body fight infection. Your red blood cells make sure all your body parts have the oxygen they need. Your platelets keep you from bleeding too much. When the leukemia cells crowd out your normal cells, your blood cannot do its job. You may bleed or bruise easily, get sick more often, and feel very tired.

Are there different types of leukemia?

There are four main types of leukemia. Acute leukemia gets worse very quickly. People with acute leukemia often feel sick right away. Chronic leukemia gets worse slowly, and you may not have any symptoms until later on in the illness. Those two kinds of leukemia are divided according to which kind of white blood cells are involved, lymphocytes or myelocytes.

• Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). ALL is the most common leukemia in children. Adults also get it.
• Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). AML affects both children and adults.
• Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). CLL is the most common leukemia in adults, especially older adults. Children almost never get it. It mostly affects people who are older than 55.
• Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). CML occurs mostly in adults.

What causes leukemia?

Experts do not know what causes leukemia. They do not know why some people get it and others do not. It is likely that the different types of leukemia have different causes.

Research has shown that some people may be more likely to get leukemia. A risk factor is anything that raises your chance of getting a disease. Risk factors for leukemia include chemotherapy treatment, being exposed to large amounts of radiation or some chemicals in the workplace, and smoking and tobacco use.

Most people who get leukemia do not have any risk factors.

What are the symptoms?

Symptoms may include:

• Fevers and night sweats.
• Frequent infections.
• Weakness and fatigue.
• Headaches.
• Bruising of the skin and bleeding from the gums or rectum.
• Bone pain.
• Joint pain.
• Swelling in the belly or pain on the left side of the belly or in the left shoulder from a swollen spleen.
• Swollen lymph nodes in the armpit, neck, or groin.
• Decreased appetite and weight loss because you feel full and don’t want to eat.

The chronic forms of leukemia often cause no symptoms at first.

How is leukemia diagnosed?

If your doctor thinks you might have leukemia, he or she will ask questions about your past and present symptoms, do a physical exam, and order blood tests.

If your blood tests are not normal, a test of cells from inside your bone marrow, called a bone marrow biopsy, is usually needed to diagnose leukemia.

How is it treated?

Treatment depends on what kind of leukemia you have and how far along it is. Treatment can range from watchful waiting to a stem cell transplant. Usually it includes chemotherapy and sometimes radiation treatments.

Kidney Cancer

Renal cell cancer: Treatment – Patient Information [NCI PDQ] – General Information About Renal Cell Cancer

 

Renal cell cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in tubules of the kidney.

Renal cell cancer (also called kidney cancer or renal adenocarcinoma) is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the lining of tubules (very small tubes) in the kidney. There are 2 kidneys, one on each side of the backbone, above the waist. The tiny tubules in the kidneys filter and clean the blood, taking out waste products and making urine. The urine passes from each kidney into the bladder through a long tube called a ureter. The bladder stores the urine until it is passed from the body.

Cancer that starts in the ureters or the renal pelvis (the part of the kidney that collects urine and drains it to the ureters) is different from renal cell cancer. Refer to the PDQ summary on Transitional Cell Cancer of the Renal Pelvis and Ureter Treatment for more information).

Smoking and misuse of certain pain medicines can affect the risk of developing renal cell cancer.

Risk factors include the following:

• Smoking.
• Misusing certain pain medicines, including over-the-counter pain medicines, for a long time.
• Having certain genetic conditions, such as von Hippel-Lindau disease or hereditary papillary renal cell carcinoma.

Possible signs of renal cell cancer include blood in the urine and a lump in the abdomen.

These and other symptoms may be caused by renal cell cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. There may be no symptoms in the early stages. Symptoms may appear as the tumor grows. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:

• Blood in the urine.
• A lump in the abdomen.
• A pain in the side that doesn’t go away.
• Loss of appetite.
• Weight loss for no known reason.
• Anemia.

Tests that examine the abdomen and kidneys are used to detect (find) and diagnose renal cell cancer.

The following tests and procedures may be used:

• Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient’s health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
• Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it.
• Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and its contents, such as sugar, protein, blood, and bacteria.
• Liver function test: A procedure in which a sample of blood is checked to measure the amounts of enzymes released into it by the liver. An abnormal amount of an enzyme can be a sign that cancer has spread to the liver. Certain conditions that are not cancer may also increase liver enzyme levels.
• Intravenous pyelogram (IVP): A series of x-rays of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder to find out if cancer is present in these organs. A contrast dye is injected into a vein. As the contrast dye moves through the kidneys, ureters, and bladder, x-rays are taken to see if there are any blockages.
• Ultrasound exam: A procedure in which high-energy sound waves (ultrasound) are bounced off internal tissues or organs and make echoes. The echoes form a picture of body tissues called a sonogram.
• CT scan (CAT scan): A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
• MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
• Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer. To do a biopsy for renal cell cancer, a thin needle is inserted into the tumor and a sample of tissue is withdrawn.

Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.

The prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options depend on the following:

• The stage of the disease.
• The patient’s age and general health.

Esophageal cancer: Screening – Patient Information [NCI PDQ]

Esophageal cancer: Screening – Patient Information [NCI PDQ] – General Information About Esophageal Cancer

 

Esophageal cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the esophagus.

The esophagus is the hollow, muscular tube that moves food and liquid from the throat to the stomach. The wall of the esophagus is made up of several layers of tissue, including mucous membrane, muscle, and connective tissue. Esophageal cancer starts in the inside lining of the esophagus and spreads outward through the other layers as it grows.

The stomach and esophagus are part of the upper digestive system.

The two most common types of esophageal cancer are named for the type of cells that become malignant (cancerous):

• Squamous cell carcinoma: Cancer that begins in squamous cells, the thin, flat cells lining the esophagus. This cancer is most often found in the upper and middle part of the esophagus but can occur anywhere along the esophagus. This is also called epidermoid carcinoma.
• Adenocarcinoma: Cancer that begins in glandular (secretory) cells. Glandular cells in the lining of the esophagus produce and release fluids such as mucus. Adenocarcinomas usually form in the lower part of the esophagus, near the stomach.

Esophageal cancer is found more often in men.

Men are about three times more likely than women to have esophageal cancer. There are more new cases of esophageal adenocarcinoma each year and fewer new cases of squamous cell carcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus is found more often in blacks than in whites. The chance of developing esophageal cancer increases with age.

Smoking, heavy alcohol use, and Barrett’s esophagus can affect the risk of developing esophageal cancer.

Anything that increases the chance of getting a disease is called a risk factor.

Risk factors for squamous cell esophageal cancer include the following:

• Using tobacco.
• Drinking a lot of alcohol.
• Being malnourished (lacking nutrients and/or calories).
• Being infected with human papillomavirus (HPV).
• Having tylosis.
• Having achalasia.
• Having swallowed lye (a chemical found in some cleaning fluids).
• Drinking very hot liquids on a regular basis.

Risk factors for esophageal adenocarcinoma include the following:

• Having gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).
• Having Barrett’s esophagus.
• Having a history of using drugs that relax the lower esophageal sphincter (the ring of muscle that opens and closes the opening between the esophagus and the stomach).
• Being overweight.

Bladder Cancer

 

What is bladder cancer?

Bladder cancer is the rapid growth of abnormal cells in the lining of the bladder. Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in the United States.¹ One or more bladder cancers may develop at the same time in different parts of the bladder.

Bladder cancer is usually curable if it is diagnosed while the cancer is still contained in the bladder. More than 80% of bladder cancers are diagnosed at this early stage.^{2, 3}

The bladder is the part of your urinary tract that stores urine. See an illustration of the female urinary system or male urinary system.

What causes bladder cancer?

The cause of bladder cancer is not known. However, it is 3 times more likely to develop in smokers than in nonsmokers, and experts believe that smoking causes 50% to 60% of bladder cancer in men and 25% of bladder cancer in women.^{1, 4}

The most common symptoms of bladder cancer include blood in the urine, pain during urination, urinating small amounts frequently, or frequent urinary tract infections (UTIs), though these symptoms may also be caused by other urinary conditions.

What increases your risk of developing bladder cancer?

Tobacco use is the main risk factor for bladder cancer. Other risk factors include:^{1, 5}

• Being older than 40.
• Being male. Men are 4 times more likely than women to develop bladder cancer.
• Work exposure to cancer-causing chemicals, such as those used in leather, wood, rubber, and textile industries.
• Schistosomiasis, which is an infection with the parasite Schistosoma haematobium. This condition is sometimes found in developing countries and rarely occurs in the United States.

How is bladder cancer diagnosed?

Bladder cancer is diagnosed by:

• Your medical history and a physical exam, including a vaginal or rectal exam.
• Urine tests, such as a urinalysis to determine the presence of blood and other abnormal cells.
• Medical procedures, such as an intravenous pyelogram (IVP), an ultrasound, a CT scan, or a cystoscopy to determine whether an abnormal mass is present in or around the bladder. A cystoscopy is the best test for confirming bladder cancer.

How is it treated?

The treatment of bladder cancer depends on how large the cancer is and how far it has spread. Bladder cancer is usually curable if it is diagnosed while the cancer is still contained in the bladder, and more than 80% of bladder cancers are diagnosed at this early stage.^{2, 3}

Treatment options include surgery to remove the cancer, medications (chemotherapy), radiation therapy, or substances to boost or restore your body’s immune system (biological therapy).

Most cancers can be treated effectively without removing the entire bladder. This type of cancer commonly comes back after it has been treated, so an important part of treatment follow-up is to have regular cytoscopic examinations. This allows new tumors to be diagnosed while they are still small, contained on the surface of the bladder (superficial), and easily treated.

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